The Australia Times - TAT Geo magazine. Volume 1, issue 2

THE TIMES

AUSTRALIA

GEO

Vol. 1 No. 2 August 2014

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WHAT’S INSIDE?

EARTH NEWS .......................................... 4

THE GREAT OCEAN ROAD..................... 16

WIND ENERGY ...................................... 42

SUSTAINABLE COLUMN: HOMEMADE

MAKEUP ................................................ 48

FROM THE LAB ...................................... 55

SPECIES FACT FILE: PLATYPUS ................. 62

FOREST CORNER ................................... 70

We aim to inform, entertain, teach, encourage, educate and support the community at

large by facilitating communication between all Australians. By providing the opportuni-

ty for all opinions to be shared on a single website.

This world will never cease to amaze me. In this issue

alone I have been puzzled by the platypus (did you know

their fur is thicker than that of a polar bear?), I have delved

into lab research (sex drive in sh of all things!) and I have

been transported to the Italian Alps to explore biodiversity

in plants.

But what astonishes me even more is the passion of

my contributors and readers. It is inspiring to see citizen

science at work, with each article enriching our interest

in the world around us. This is exactly what TAT GEO

is all about. With an appreciation of scientic research

and discovery, GEO aims to raise awareness and inspire

interest in protecting nature.

I invite you to go on a tour of discovery through our

second issue. Ladies let me draw your attention to the

sustainable living column where you will nd an article

on homemade makeup. For the budding scientists, there

is a continuation of climate change related topics from the

rst issue.

If you wish to contribute anything from writing to

photography you are most welcome! Please send me an

email at

Lauren.Shearman@theaustraliatimes.

com.au

From the Editor,

Lauren Shearman

Welcome

from the editor

COVER IMAGE PHOTO CREDIT:

STEVEN SANDNER

ARCHIVE

COMMENT

FORUM

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Earth NEws

RESEARCHERS INTERPRET

CHIMPANZEE

GESTURES

Researchers have gathered compelling evidence that chimpanzees use gestures

to communicate in a manner similar to human language. After18 months observing

a group of wild chimpanzees in the Budongo rainforest of Uganda, researchers

have determined that chimpanzees use 66 gestures to communicate 19 meanings.

The exible, goal-oriented and intentional meanings of the chimp ‘language’ are

missing in most animal communication systems, including great ape vocalization.

While previous research reveals that apes and monkeys are able to comprehend

the call of another animal, the gestures are used intentionally to communicate

messages.

The ndings of this unique eld

study have spurred interest into the

origins of human language.

Leading the research was Dr

Catherine Hobaiter who told BBC

News “The big message [from

this study] is that there is another

species out there that is meaningful

in its communication, so that’s not

unique to humans...I don’t think

we’re quite as set apart as we

would perhaps like to think we

are.”

The research is published in the

journal Current Biology

Monkey Business: Researchers translate the chimpanzee language.

Photo credit: Hobaiter and Byrne, Current Biology (2014)

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FROG IMMUNISED AGAINST DEADLY

DISEASE

Fungal pathogens are among the greatest

parasitic threats to biodiversity and are responsible

for the declines of many taxa, including bats, corals,

bees, snakes and amphibians.

Jason Rohr from the University of South

Florida and his colleagues have uncovered ways

that species could protect themselves against infection

using behavioural or immunological responses.

The study, published in Current Biology,

began with spraying dead fungus on three different

frog species as a method of vaccination. The killer

fungus, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, causes

Chytridiomycosis. This is a disease that causes

heart failure and dehydration by increasing the

thickness of the amphibians’ skin.

Fungicides are only a short-term option to ghting

Chytrids, additionally the chemicals are harmful to

other organisms too. A vaccine should have a long

lasting and specic effect on the amphibians.

The results from the vaccination study found three

frog species acquired resistance to the killer fungus

after repeated exposures. In a behavioural resistance

experiment, at least one species also learned to avoid

the infectious fungus altogether.

Rohr has hopes of vaccinating wild amphibians

by spraying the dead fungus into their habitats.

According to Rohr, the vaccination technique,

“holds promise against white nose syndrome

in bats and lots of other diseases, such as those

affecting snakes and bees.”

Masked tree frog head.

Photo credit: Charlesjsharp via Wikimedia Commons

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COMMON PESTICIDE DETRIMENTAL TO BUMBLE BEE FORAGING

Scientists are concerned that prolonged exposure to a commonly used pesticide is negatively affecting

bumblebee foraging behaviour.

Results of the recent study, published in Functional Ecology, found that not only does the pesticide

affect an individual bee’s ability to forage but also alters the species of ower they visit, which then affects

colony survival.

Photo credit: P7r7, via Wikimedia Commons.

The pollination services provided by these insects

are of vital importance to food security. It has been

estimated that approximately one mouthful in

three of our diet benets from bee pollination.

When bumblebees forage for nectar pollen

becomes stuck on their furry coats, and spreads

when they travel from ower to ower. Bumblebees

will also deliberately vibrate their wings to release

pollen from owers, assisting the pollination process.

Additionally, some pollen is taken to the nest as a

food source for the colony.

Using radio tags, the study monitored the activity of

259 bumblebees from 40 colonies. Researchers from

Imperial College London and the University

of Guelph followed the movement of the bees,

measuring pollen collection and documenting ower

type.

The researchers exposed the bees to two types

of pesticide, alongside a control group that had no

pesticide exposure. The results found that the bees

exposed to the chemical imidacloprid had a lower

foraging performance, bringing back signicantly

less pollen than the control bees. Interestingly, it was

also observed that colonies compensated for the

decrease in pollen by sending out more foragers.

Another important nding was evidence of

behavioural impairment. Control bees gained

foraging experience (measured by their performance

increase) while bees exposed to imidacloprid as

they became worse over time. The conclusion of the

study outlines that the behavioural effects could have

serious implications for colony growth and survival.

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A new study suggests that seals are drawn to

offshore wind farms and underwater pipelines. The

manmade structures are possibly serving as articial

reefs, which become hunting grounds for the seals.

Over 100 harbour seals (Halichoerus grypus)

along the British and Dutch coasts of the North Sea

were GPS tagged and monitored.

The research team, led by Deborah Russell

from the University of St. Andrews, found

that 11 harbor seals are regularly visiting two

active wind farms: Alpha Ventus in Germany and

Sheringham Shoal in the southeast U.K.

The repeated visits suggest successful foraging

behaviour. This allowed researchers to deduce the

mammals are attracted to and utilize the renewable

energy structures.

The study is one of the rst to show evidence e

of marine mammals feeding at wind farms and is

published in the online journal Current Biology

Further investigations are required to understand

the effects that the new hunting ground will have on

prey species populations. It is unclear whether the

turbines are increasing the number of prey species,

or only be concentrating the number of prey.

Photo credit: David Dixon, via Wikimedia Commons.

OFFSHORE WIND FARMS BECOME SEAL FISHING HOT SPOT

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Ecosystems must cope with both changes in climate as well as anthropogenic threats.

Photo credit: Steven Sandner

As global temperatures rise, we see more extremes in the weather: droughts, erratic rain patterns, heat

waves, oods, cyclones and wildres. Glaciers are shrinking almost worldwide. Permafrost is thawing

in high latitude and high elevation regions. Levels are rising in the oceans and its chemical composition

altering.

So how is nature coping?

The current rates of extinction are about 1000 times what scientists would expect. These are higher than

previously predicted and likely still underestimated. They are also poised to increase.

Warming climate affects habitats, geographical ranges, available food and ultimately, survival.

Each species affected has a domino effect on those around it.

Krill (order Euphausiacea) for example, nd food and refuge on the underside of ice sheets. Now their

populations are decreasing, with some areas reporting losses of as much as 80% over the last 30 years. Krill

is the southern ocean’s main source of food.

ADAPTATION OF SPECIES TO

CLIMATE CHANGE

BY LIZZ RICE

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Adélie penguins spend their winters on the rapidly declining

Antarctic pack ice.

The numbers of adélie penguins (Pygoscelis

adeliae), who feed on krill, are retreating. They have

to migrate further to nd food and expend energy

that would otherwise be spent on breeding and

raising young.

Coral is sensitive to changes in ocean temperature

and worldwide is in trouble. Its bleaching is well

documented in places such as the Great Barrier Reef,

but this doesn’t just mean scuba diving won’t be as

pretty.

Corals live in symbiosis with the algal cells in its

tissues that are responsible for its colour. The algae

give the corals sugar; corals give algae nutrients and

protection. When it’s too hot the algae can’t make

sugar, so the corals kick them out. Two species are

in trouble.

Animals that are dependent on the coral, such

as the orange-spotted lesh (Oxymonacanthus

longirostris), are also suffering. Three species are in

trouble, and so on.

The pace of warming in the oceans is larger than

in terrestrial environments, therefore change here

may be most marked. Ocean acidication slows the

nutrients that fuel all marine life.

But nature is battling back.

“Most of the models that ecologists are putting

out are assuming that there’s no adaptive capacity.

And that’s silly,” Ary Hoffmann, a geneticist at the

University of Melbourne and the co-author of an

evolutionary climate change review, told National

Geographic. “Organisms are not static.”

Species are moving their geographical distribution

to deeper waters, further north, or to higher altitudes.

The winners will be those that expand their ranges,

like many weeds, pests and invasive species.

Bleached Staghorn Coral (Acropora cervicornis) on the Great

Barrier Reef, Queensland.

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The quino checkerspot butterﬂy may be among the ﬁrst butterﬂy

species to change both its habitat and its diet as a response to

climate change.

The endangered quino checkerspot buttery

(Euphydryas editha quino) is known for being

threatened by climate change. Many experts believed

it was doomed.

But a recent report from Buttery Conservation’s

symposium in England demonstrated it had shifted

its range to higher altitudes and had also learnt to

lay its eggs on a new host plant.

Even trees are on the run. Tropical Andean tree

species are moving upward 2.5 to 3.5 metres a year.

It is not, however, fast enough.

Species are also changing their timings. Plants

are owering earlier; birds are nesting, breeding

and migrating earlier.

How do species adapt?

To demonstrate the mechanisms used let’s look

to a recent study, which may improve the dismal

predictions of demise for coral reef ecosystems.

Corals (Acropora hyacinthus) were reciprocally

transplanted between reef sites with varying

temperatures. The corals from cooler pools became,

over time, better able to cope with unusually hot

pools.

The study showed reef corals can adapt in two

different ways: phenotypic plasticity, where corals

were able to adapt to hotter water without any

change in their genes. And genetic evolution, where

the corals that were native to the hot pools were able

to tolerate the heat better than the ones transplanted.

Determining whether phenotypic changes are

due to plastic or genetic responses is tough. Many

longitudinal studies of climate change response have

been misinterpreted as having genetic underpinnings,

which are now attributed to plastic changes.

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Tawny owls were placed on a scale based on their colour. These lighter ones (left) are becoming less frequent.

One example of genetic evolution is a study of

wild tawny owls (Strix aluco) in Finland. These

owls, which can be grey or brown, became much

more common as winters encountered less snowfall.

Because only genes determine the owl’s colour, this

response can be attributed to microevolution.

Evidence for genetic adaptation to climate change

is still relatively scarce. This is likely to be attributable

to the lack of actual tests rather than lack of its

occurrence.

One reason for the scant data is that genetic

change takes a long time to study – these tawny

owls were studied for 28 years, and nationwide

observations were made over 48 years.

What’s more, it’s hard to determine the specic

environmental driver.

Research rarely involves the testing and exclusion

of other potential elements, and there are many

environmental changes happening that can shape

phenotypic responses.

Climate change isn’t happening in a vacuum. It’s

occurring at a time of intense pressure from other

factors. With human population booming, our

ever-growing demand induces habitat destruction,

deforestation, over-harvesting and pollution. We

have eliminated top predators and other large-bodied

species across most continents. Ocean depletion,

chronic hydrological changes and invasive species

cause acute stress.

Whether these factors affect overlapping species

or broadly different ones, whether they will act

synergistically, or what the knock-on effects will be,

no one really knows.

We have messed up the balance so aggressively

and so rapidly that species are sent reeling; struggling

for survival.

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CHANGE WILL HAPPEN

From the biggest elephant to the smallest fungi, all

varieties of life are affected by the changing climate

Photo credit: Steven Sandner

What is apparent is that the temperature increase

is happening too fast for some species to survive.

Those least likely to keep up will be species with

long lives, as they have fewer generations to evolve,

compared to species with short lives, like fruit ies.

Long-lived species with low genetic variability,

such as many rare mammals, will also have less

adaptive ability.

Those at most risk are species highly specialised in

what they eat or where they live, koalas (Phascolarctos

cinereus) for instance, and those with little capacity

for adaptation. Some, like tropical lizards, already

exist close to their upper thermal thresholds. Others,

like animal and plant species on mountaintops, have

nowhere left to go.

Because we know very little about the biodiversity

of life, it is hard to tell the peril species are in and

what damage might already have been done.

Tropical regions, with their difcult terrain and

rough jungle, are understudied because they have

been mostly inaccessible to science. In the sea, there

are likely three to nine times more species awaiting

discovery.

In terms of bacterial, archeal and viral species,

however, our ignorance is even greater. A virtually

unknown frontier, it’s believed we know less than

0.1%, of the diversity.

Prochlorococcus, a class of marine bacteria, are

considered likely the most abundant organisms on

Earth. They are responsible for the oxygen in an

estimated one in ve breaths, reduce atmospheric

CO2 and lie at the base of the food chain. Our lives

depend upon them, yet we’ve only known they even

exist for less than 30 years.

Were better knowledge available, it would be

possible to map out where help is needed.

We can do this by sharing data. Better estimates

of species’ identication and movements can be

achieved through strategies like DNA barcoding

and citizen science.

Apps such as iNaturalist allow amateurs to upload

observations from smartphones and skilled observers

then catalogue them from the photos provided. The

fastest growth in understanding distributions comes

from large numbers of these amateurs.

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INTERVENTION

Understanding which species need help can

inform where human action is necessary.

Intervention could include connecting fragmented

habitats, transporting seeds or individuals to different

populations, and crossbreeding.

It can also help identify where protection is

needed.

The rate at which mammals, birds and amphibians

have slid toward extinction over the past four

decades would have been 20% higher were it not

for conservation efforts.

Those with more than 50% of their important sites

protected are sliding toward extinction only half as

rapidly as those with less than 50% of their important

sites preserved.

Destruction of natural habitats is the major threat to

species, so it is imperative we increase conservation,

especially that of the ocean where security lags

behind land.

The effect climate disruption will have on extinction

rates has produced a vast range of estimates. All are

dire.

The process is wiping out species that are the

masterpieces of thousands to millions of years of

evolution. Our ignorance means many will be lost

before we’ve even discovered them.

Each exquisite life form is interlocked in ecosystems

that impact our own lives in ways we cannot even

begin to imagine.

We must preserve life. It is our responsibility, as

those that have well and truly devastated it in the rst

place.

PHOTO SOURCES

Picture 1 Michel C, “Antarctica 2013: Journey to

attribution license, https://ic.kr/p/dKFFLf

Picture 2 Kieffer M, “Bleached Staghorn Coral”, Flickr,

https://ic.kr/p/7gQthZ

Picture 3 Pacic Southwest Region, “Endangered

under an attribution license, https://ic.kr/p/8HqNRb

Picture 4/5 from left to right Paul C, “Tawny Owl -

license, https://ic.kr/p/bBg5gP

an attribution license, https://ic.kr/p/9n63W9

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Barcode of Life Staff. What is DNA barcoding?

Barcode of Life. http://www.barcodeoife.org/content/

about/what-dna-barcoding. Accessed July 26, 2014.

Buttery Conservation Staff. Rare buttery dees

climate change. Buttery Conservation. http://buttery-

conservation.org/48-5508/rare-buttery-dees-climate-

change.html. Published April 4, 2014. Accessed July 26,

2014.

Catanoso J. Rain forest plants race to outrun

global warning. National Geographic. http://news.

nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/09/130915-

climate-change-amazon-rain-forest-science/. Published

September 15, 2013. Accessed July 26, 2014.

Dell’Amore C. 7 species hit hard by climate

change - including one that’s already extinct. National

Geographic. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/

news/2014/03/140331-global-warming-climate-

change-ipcc-animals-science-environment/. Published

March 31, 2014. Accessed 26 July, 2014.

Feeley, KJ, Silman MR, Bush MB, et al. Upslope

migration of Andean trees. Journal of Biogeography,

2011;38(4):783-791.

Field CB, Barros VR, Dokken KJ, et al. IPCC, 2014:

Summary for policymakers. Climate Change 2014:

Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global

and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II

to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental

Panel on Climate Change, 2014:1-32. http://www.

ipcc-wg2.gov/AR5/images/uploads/WG2AR5_SPM_

FINAL.pdf. Accessed 26 July, 2014.

Hinder SL, Gravenor MB, Edwards M, et al. Multi-

decadal range changes vs. thermal adaptation for north

east Atlantic oceanic copepods in the face of climate

change. Global Change Biology, 2014;20(1),140-146.

Hoffmann A. Researcher prole. University of

Melbourne. http://genetics.unimelb.edu.au/person/

academics/ah.html. Updated October 3, 2013. Accessed

July 26, 2014.

Hoffmann AA, Sgrò CM. Climate change and

evolutionary adaptation. Nature, 2011;470(7335):479-

485.

iNaturalist Staff. Homepage. iNaturalist. http://www.

inaturalist.org/. Accessed July 26, 2014.

Jackson J. How we wrecked the ocean [Video]. TED

Talks. http://www.ted.com/talks/jeremy_jackson.

Filmed April, 2010. Accessed July 26, 2014.

Karell P, Ahola K, Karstinen T, Valkama J, Brommer

JE. Climate change drives microevolution in a wild bird.

Nature Communications, 2011;2:208.

Marris E. How a few species are hacking climate

change. National Geographic. http://news.

nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/05/140506-

climate-change-adaptation-evolution-coral-

science-butterflies/?utm_source=Twitter&utm_

medium=Social&utm_content=link_tw20140506news-

coralevo&utm_campaign=Content&sf2840707=1.

Published May 6, 2014. Accessed July 26, 2014.

Merilä J, Hendry AP. Climate change, adaptation,

and phenotypic plasticity: the problem and the evidence.

Evolutionary applications, 2014;7(1):1-14.

Palca J. The most important microbe you’ve never

heard of. NPR. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/

story.php?storyId=91448837. Published June 12, 2008.

Accessed July 26, 2014.

Palumbi SR, Barshis DJ, Traylor-Knowles N, Bay RA.

Mechanisms of reef coral resistance to future climate

change. Science, 2014;344(6186):895-898.

Pimm SL, Jenkins CN, Abell R, et al. The biodiversity

of species and their rates of extinction, distribution, and

protection. Science, 2014; 344(6187), 1246752.

RiAus Staff. A week in science - are the animals

of Antarctica doomed? [Video]. RiAus. http://

riaus.org.au/podcast/a-week-in-science-27-

june-2014/?utm_source=RiAusNewsletter&utm_

medium=20140627&utm_campaign=AWIS%20-%20

Animals%20of%20Antarctica. Published June 27, 2014.

Accessed July 26, 2014.

Wilson EO. My wish: build the encyclopedia of life

[Video]. TED Talks. http://www.ted.com/talks/e_o_

wilson_on_saving_life_on_earth. Filmed March, 2007.

Accessed July 26, 2014.

REFERENCES

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The Great Ocean Road

part of australia’s NatioNal Heritage.

The Great Ocean Road

part of australia’s NatioNal Heritage.

The curves of the Great Ocean Road as viewed from Teddy’s Lookout

south of Lorne in Victoria, Australia. Source: Wikipedia Commons

The Great Ocean Road -

Victoria, Australia

The Great Ocean Road begins at

Torquay and extends 243 kilometres

westward to end at Allansford, near

Warrnambool.

The road follows the coastline, known

colloquially as the Surf Coast, between

Torquay and Cape Otway. The section

to the west of the cape is known as the

Shipwreck Coast.

Along these sections, travellers have

magnicent views of Bass Strait and the

Southern Ocean.

In parts, the road leads inland

through rain forests and in other

sections, skirts beaches and cliffs of

sandstone and limestone that are

particularly vulnerable to erosion.

Ocean waves, eroding the soft rock

of the cliffs, have created many unusual

rock features.

Photo Source: Wikipedia

BY MARGARET GREGORY

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The Great Ocean Road

part of australia’s NatioNal Heritage.

The Great Ocean Road

part of australia’s NatioNal Heritage.

HISTORY OF THE ROAD

The Great Ocean Road was built

by returned soldiers as a memorial

to lives lost in World War 1. It was

ofcially opened in 1922.

Since then, the road has been

susceptible to the natural elements.

In 1960, the section at

Princetown was partially washed

away by water during severe

storms.

Landslides occurred along

sections of the road in 1964 and

1971.

In 1962 and 1964, the road

was closed due to bushres in the

nearby coastal terrain.

One section of the overhanging

cliffs collapsed in 2011, due to

heavy rain.

In 2011, The Great Ocean

Road was added to the Australian

National Heritage list.

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Photo by F.W. Gregory

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THE TWELVE APOSTLES

The Twelve Apostles are a collection of limestone stacks offshore from the Port Campbell National Park.

As with the other features, they were formed by erosion due to the harsh and extreme weather conditions

coming from the Southern Ocean.

The process began when soft limestone cliffs were gradually eroded, and caves formed in the cliffs. In

time, these became merely arches and when the arches collapsed, only the stacks remained. Some of the

stacks are up to 45m high.

Although called the Twelve Apostles, there were only ever nine stacks. Back in July of 2005, a 50m high

pillar collapsed, leaving only eight

still standing.

The rate of erosion at the base

of the limestone stacks is estimated

at 2 cm per year.

They are protected by the

Twelve Apostles Marine National

Park, which covers 7500 ha and

runs along 17 km of stunning

coastline. As well as the above

water beauty, the park protects

some of Victoria’s most dramatic

underwater scenery. Spectacular

arches, canyons, ssures, gutters

and deep sloping reefs make up

the environment below the waves.

Photo by F.W. Gregory

The Twelve Apostles in 2002, before the collapse

of the leftmost stack. Source: Wikipedia Commons

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Photo by F.W. Gregory

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THE RAZORBACK

The Razorback is yet another rock formation that one can view when visiting the Loch Ard Gorge precinct.

The name is given to a limestone stack that stands in a cove that is constantly subjected to the forces of wind

and water erosion of the Southern Ocean. If you spend a few minutes watching the waves crash against

the coastline, you will notice another cave forming in the cliff face, which is likely to one day form into a

blowhole, or into another arch.

Photo by F.W. Gregory

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Photo by F.W. Gregory

Source: Wikipedia

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Photo by F.W. Gregory

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Photo by F.W. Gregory

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LOCH ARD GORGE

Loch Ard Gorge is named after the clipper ship, Loch Ard, which ran aground on nearby Muttonbird

Island in 1878. The vessel was nearing the end of its three-month journey from England to Australia.

It is a visible example of the process of erosion in action. The arch of the nearby Island Archway collapsed

in 2009, and the feature now appears as two unconnected rock stacks. They have since been ofcially

named Tom and Eva after the two teenage survivors of the Loch Ard shipwreck.

Photo by F.W. Gregory

Some rights reserved by Andrea Schaffer

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Some rights reserved by Paleontour

The Island Arch before the centre collapsed.

Source: Flickr

Photo by F.W. Gregory

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THE ISLAND ARCH

The two limestone stacks known as Tom and Eva, which are the

remnants of the Island Arch, are evidence of erosion on the surf coast.

The central section of the arch that is now merely a space between

the two limestone stacks, collapsed in June 2009.

Photo by F.W. Gregory

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BLOWHOLE

The blowhole is one of ve spots of interest in the Loch Ard Gorge

precinct. It is the result of constant erosion of the sea against the limestone

cliffs, along with the seepage of surface rainwater cutting through the

limestone cliffs, which have caused it to cave in over the tunnel that the

ocean has been carving. The blowhole here is particularly loud; as one

can hear the waves churn through the chamber of the blowhole and

resonate against its limestone walls.

Ocean swells rush through this tunnel which is approximately 100

meters from the sea producing spray and the booming noise.

Some rights reserved by Andrea Schaffer

Above - The Blowhole Source: Flickr

Below - From above Thunder Cave looking seaward. Source: FW Gregory Right - Thunder Cave

Photo by F.W. Gregory

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Photo by F.W. Gregory

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Broken Head

Sherbrook Creek

Photo by F.W. Gregory

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Sherbrook Creek

Photo by F.W. Gregory

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THE ARCH (ABOVE)

This natural rock formation formed through erosion. The arch is one of several rock formations

in the general area. While in other parts of the world it may be considered something of a wonder,

along this particular coastline, it is reduced to something of a footnote. There is no means to access

the arch itself without putting oneself in a bit of peril, and one can get up close and personal with it

from the water on chartered boats. A pathway leads to a viewing platform which provides a single

perspective of this natural arch.

London Bridge

Photo by F.W. Gregory

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London Arch

London Bridge was a naturally formed double-

span bridge in the Port Campbell National Park.

In early 1990, the arch closer to the shoreline

collapsed unexpectedly and it became a bridge

without a middle span. It is now referred to as

London Arch. Photo Source: Wikipedia

London Bridge just after the span collapsed in 1990.

Photo Source: Wikipedia

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Photo by F.W. Gregory

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The Grotto is a geological

formation created when sinkholes

in the limestone cliffs met with a

receding cliff line. It is located 3

km east of Peterborough.

Wooden stairs wind down the

cliff face and there are viewing

platforms at several places. At

the bottom, when it is low tide,

the sea is visible beyond a pool

of trapped water. The Grotto is a

naturally carved out cave, which

stands up about halfway from sea

level up the cliff.

The Grotto

Photo by F.W. Gregory

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BAY OF MARTYRS

The Bay of Martyrs is an open, 2.5 km long, south-west facing bay containing numerous reefs and sea

stacks. The shoreline is composed predominantly of 10m high, red limestone bluffs. Within the bay are

several smaller bays and beaches, two of which are named Massacre Bay and Crofts Bay.

Photo by F.W. Gregory

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WORM BAY

Worm Bay is a small gap in the limestone bluffs located on the eastern side of the Bay of Martyrs. It lies

just off the Great Ocean Road and there are car parks at both ends of the 100m long beach. Steps lead

down to the beach from the 10m high limestone bluffs.

The beach faces west and is partially protected by two headlands and the numerous reefs in the Bay of

Martyrs. Waves tend to be low in the bay and surge up the beach face.

Photo by F.W. Gregory

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BAY OF ISLANDS

Just west of Peterborough, off the Great Ocean

Road, the Bay of Islands car park provides excellent

views of this remarkable group of islands.

The Bay of islands stretches for 33 km, from

Peterborough, almost to Warrnambool. The sculpted

coastline has its origins around 10-20 million

years ago when billions of tiny skeletal fragments

accumulated beneath the sea gradually creating

limestone formations. The sea then retreated leaving

the soft limestone exposed above sea-level to violent

seas and strong winds which have carved out some

remarkable features.

The ancient limestone towers in the Bay of Islands

appear to oat in the ocean and surround the viewer.

Source: Flickr

Some rights reserved by Ian Sutton

Photo by F.W. Gregory

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Photo Source: Wikipedia

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Wind energy:

the cheap and

efficient renewable

BY ANNIE AULSEBROOK

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Photo Credit: Tennessee Valley

Authority via Wikimedia Commons

Renewable energy is a hotter topic of conversation

now than it has ever been. Earlier this year, the

American Association for the Advancement of

Science (AAAS) declared that the link between

greenhouse gas emissions and climate change is as

strong as the link between smoking and lung cancer.

Right now, Australian politicians are reviewing the

Renewable Energy Target, which aims to derive 20%

of Australian energy from renewable sources by

2020. Whatever politicians decide for our climate,

we can be sure of one thing: it will be difcult to

reduce greenhouse gas emissions without reducing

our use of fossil fuels. So what renewable energy

source should we turn to? Many investors are nding

their answer in the wind.

Wind energy is harvested using wind turbines,

which look a little like pinwheels only far bigger. One

wind turbine can be as tall as a twenty-storey building,

complete with three blades, each sixty-metres long.

The wind spins the blades, the blades turn a shaft

connected to a generator, and the generator converts

this kinetic energy into electricity. Compared to other

sources of energy, wind is cheap. According to the

Clean Energy Council, wind energy is the currently

the cheapest energy technology that can be rolled

out on a large scale. Once a wind turbine is erected,

the operational costs are close to zero. Furthermore,

advances in technology are making wind turbines

cheaper than ever to construct. The conversion of

wind energy to electricity produces no air or water

pollution and no greenhouse gas emissions. So, is

there a catch?

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IS wINd A RElIAblE, EffICIENT ENERgy SouRCE?

The most obvious weakness of using wind energy is that the wind varies. No matter how strategically

wind farms are positioned, it is not possible to avoid wind variation. One way to resolve this issue is to

adjust the proportion of electricity being supplied by wind farms on a regular basis. In New South Wales,

this is done every ve minutes. If it is windy, wind energy displaces other energy sources, such as hydro-

power, gas or coal. When it is not windy, the system reverts to using these other energy sources.

What wind energy may lack in reliability, it makes up for in its incredible efciency. It may seem surprising,

but wind turbines can generate electricity more efciently than coal power stations and just as efciently as

gas power stations. According to the New South Wales Government, wind turbines convert around 45-50%

of the wind passing through their blades into electricity. In comparison, coal stations convert around 29-27%

of their coal into electricity, and gas stations convert around 32-50%. In less than one year of operation, a

wind farm produces more energy than was used in its construction.

Photo Credit: Kunal991 via Wikimedia Commons

ARE wINd TuRbINES HARmful To wIldlIfE?

The threat of wind turbines to wildlife can be a cause for concern. On multiple occasions, it has caused

enough concern to halt the development of a wind farm. Researchers are continuing to investigate how

dangerous wind turbines can be. Birds and bats can be killed when they y into wind turbines, and some

migratory species will avoid ying near wind turbines. On the one hand, it can be argued that more birds

are killed by high-rise buildings than wind turbines. On the other hand, there is strong evidence that the

feeding, breeding and survival of bird populations can be adversely affected by the presence of wind

farms. This means that wind farm sites need to be chosen carefully, bearing in mind the needs of local and

migrating species.

How NoISy ARE wINd TuRbINES?

A report by the Victorian Department of Health released earlier this year, compared the noise of wind

turbines with other environmental noise. The sound level of a wind farm from 500 to 1000 metres away is

35 to 45 dBA (A-weighted decibels). In comparison, a quiet bedroom is 20 to 25 dBA, a rural night-time

background is 20 to 40 dBA, and a car travelling at 64 km/h around 100 metres away is 55 dBA. In other

words, if a wind farm is built somewhere in your area it will make noise, but less noise than a busy road.

The particular type of noise made by wind farms may also be a problem to nearby residents. According

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to the same report, the usual ‘swish’ of wind turbines

can occasionally become more of a ‘beating’ or

‘thumping’ noise. There can also sometimes be

high frequency whining noises. Again, while these

should not be particularly loud, they could become

irritating. The good news is that it should be possible

to minimise these weird effects by changing wind

farm operating conditions.

Another issue sometimes raised is that of very

low frequency sound or ‘infrasound’. Some have

claimed that infrasound associated with wind

turbines is a serious health hazard. This is a complete

myth. Infrasound is far more commonplace in our

environment than many people realise, in waves,

waterfalls, engines, purring cats and even our own

heartbeat. Infrasound levels are only damaging to our

health at extremely high levels, i.e. above the levels

of perception. Infrasound levels at residences near

wind farms are well below the level of perception,

and no higher than levels in other rural and urban

environments.

CAN wINd TuRbINES dAmAgE ouR HEAlTH?

To date, the National Health and Medical Research Council have rejected all claims of adverse effects of

wind farms on human health. The only exception is an effect termed ‘annoyance’, although the evidence

for this is still relatively weak. This is probably due to the noise of wind turbines, perhaps combined with

pre-existing anxieties about wind farm development. As stated by the Australian Medical Association, “the

individual’s response to a noise can contribute more to annoyance and related health effects than the level or

characteristics of the noise itself”. This is not to say that the annoyance should not be taken seriously. Anyone

who has tried to sleep within earshot of a dripping tap, or complete an exam next to someone with hiccups,

will know just how real and frustrating noises can become. These ndings do suggest, however, that there is

no need for serious alarm. In contrast, there is strong evidence that burning fossil fuels can have signicant

effects on public health, due to the generation of greenhouse gases, other pollutant emissions and waste

(Australian Medical Association).

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South Point Wind Farm.

Photo Credit Harvey McDaniel via Wikimedia Commons

Wind farm outside of Canberra.

wHAT IS THE fuTuRE foR wINd ENERgy?

In Australia, the amount of wind energy used to generate electricity has doubled in the past ve years.

Victoria’s Macarthur Wind Far m, with 140 turbines, is the largest in the Southern Hemisphere and has

the potential to power the equivalent of 220,000 Victorian households. On a world scale, wind turbine

use increased more than 25% each year for the past fteen years (Global Wind Energy Outlook 2012). In

the most ‘ambitious’ scenario for wind industry growth, more than 20% of the world’s electricity could be

supplied by wind in 2050.

We will not necessarily follow this optimistic trajectory. Yet, the demand for renewable energy is growing

and wind energy is the cheapest so far. Currently, wind power supplies around 4% of Australia’s electricity.

Perhaps we can expect to see a much higher gure in the future.

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SUSTAINABLE LIVING COLUMN:

Homemade

Makeup

BY JESSICA CRISP

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Navigating the world of beauty products can

be a tricky and daunting prospect, particularly in

the realm of makeup. Do you pick the cheap stuff

that suits your budget but is probably loaded with

harsh chemicals? How do you know a product has

denitely not been tested on animals? What becomes

of all that waste from the half-used makeup that sits

in your bag?

These days makeup can be cruelty free, made

from natural, skin nourishing minerals and be eco

certied. However, the best way to know exactly what

you’re putting on your skin is to make it yourself.

And it couldn’t be easier. Most of the ingredients you

need you can nd in your kitchen or source easily

from your local health shop.

By making your own products, you’ll know that it

hasn’t been tested on animals, contains only natural

ingredients, it’ll save you a ton of money and will

create less waste – you can even reuse old make up

pots, compacts and tubes.

POWDER FOUNDATION

This is a basic recipe for a powder foundation; it

can be tweaked so it suits your own skin tone. Once

you have gured out the perfect combination for you

make sure you take note of what you used!

¼ cup of arrowroot powder

Cocoa powder

Cinnamon

Nutmeg

Ginger

Lavender essential oil

Start with the arrowroot powder and whisk in a

couple of tablespoons of cocoa powder. This will

make a good base. From here, you can slowly add

in half a teaspoon of the other spices until you nd a

combination that matches your complexion. You can

test the colour on your face or the back of your hand.

Finally, add about 12 drops of lavender oil to make

it more of a solid base. Store in a jar and apply with

a brush.

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Nutmeg seed

BLUSHER, BRONZER AND EYE

SHADOW

As with the foundation, you will need to start with

a base of arrowroot powder and can use the same

ingredients for colour, just in different proportions.

For a bronzer, add half a tablespoon of arrowroot

powder to half a tablespoon of cocoa powder and

one teaspoon of cinnamon. This should create a

subtle bronze colour.

With the blusher, just replace the cocoa powder

and cinnamon with dried, powdered beetroot or

hibiscus powder. This will give you varying pink

hues.

Adding just a touch of arrowroot powder to cocoa

powder (brown), spirulina (green) or dried beetroot

(pink) will give you a smooth eye shadow.

Again, just like the foundation, you can easily

play around with the proportions of the ingredients

to get your desired shades.

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Raw Cinnamon

EYELINER

With just two ingredients, making your own eyeliner is possibly the most simple and cheap of all homemade

make up products. Just be careful not to get any of them in your eyes!

For brown eyeliner, simply add a pinch of cocoa powder to half a teaspoon of coconut oil. If you want

black eyeliner, just swap the cocoa powder for activated charcoal. If you want to make it a bit thicker, use

equal parts coconut oil and cocoa butter instead.

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MASCARA

2 teaspoons of coconut oil

4 teaspoons of aloe vera gel

1/2 teaspoon of grated beeswax

½ teaspoon of activated charcoal or

cocoa powder

Simply heat the coconut oil, beeswax and aloe

vera gel in a small saucepan until the wax has

completely melted. Then add either the charcoal for

black or cocoa powder for brown mascara. Use a

clean mascara brush or even a soft toothbrush to

apply.

LIPSTICK

Lipstick is one of the most chemical laden beauty

products, but your homemade creation will be

natural, moisturising and will taste great!

For a basic lip balm you will need:

1 teaspoon grated beeswax

1 teaspoon cocoa butter

1 teaspoon coconut oil

Place the ingredients in a glass jar and melt

together by placing in a pan of simmering water.

From here you can add colour and scents.

For red hues use 1/8 teaspoon of beetroot powder

For brown hues, use ¼ teaspoon of cocoa powder

and a pinch of cinnamon or turmeric to alter the

shade.

For scent use an essential oil of your choice.

Peppermint is especially tasty.

While the mixture is still liquid, pour into a small

container to set.

Coconut Oil

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EYE MAKEUP REMOVER

At the end of the day when it’s time to wipe away

your homemade makeup, do so with your own,

natural alternative to petroleum based formulas.

In a small bottle, shake together ¼ cup of witch

hazel and ¼ cup of olive oil. Then just use on a

cotton pad to clean away the day.

As with any of the recipes, it may be best to test a

small amount on your skin before you make a large

amount. Even though the ingredients are entirely

natural, it’s a good idea to check nothing irritates

your skin.

Making your own make up is cheap, easy and

it’s also fun to experiment to create products entirely

unique to your tastes and complexion. It is also a

great environmental option; you’re creating less

waste, using entirely natural ingredients and you can

make exactly what you need. This is a great, simple

way to begin or continue an eco living lifestyle.

Grated Beeswax

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HOW CAN

Pollution

AFFECT

Sex Drive

IN FISH?

HOW CAN

AFFECT

IN FISH?

BY ANNIE AULSEBROOK

Channel carrying wastewater

Chemicals and waste from our drains, gardens, farms and sewage treatment plants can

end up in our local waterways. We all know that this can be harmful for wildlife – but are we

aware of all the possible effects?

While some chemicals have obvious toxic effects on wildlife, some can be harmful in

other ways. There has been increasing concern that this is the case for endocrine-disrupting

chemicals (EDCs). As the name suggests, EDCs are chemicals that can interfere with an animal’s

endocrine system – the collection of glands that secrete hormones directly into the blood or

lymph of an organism. One example of an EDC is 17-ethinyl estradiol (EE2) which is used in

the birth-control pill. Given that sewage treatment does not remove EE2, it inevitably ends up

wherever the sewage goes. Another widely used EDC is trenbolone acetate, a steroid often

used to promote growth in the beef industry. Urine and manure from these cattle farms carries

trenbolone into local waterways. As a result, both EE2 and trenbolone are found in aquatic

environments around the world.

from thE lab:

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In a recent study, Dr Minna Saaristo (Monash

University) and her colleagues looked at Eastern

mosquitosh living downstream from a sewage

treatment plant. They found that males from this

contaminated site spent more time trying to mate

with females than males from a more pristine site.

While this may not sound so bad, male mosquitosh

are already renowned for attempting to mate around

once every minute. Furthermore, their mating strategy

is to chase their potential mate and try to force

copulation. Besides being potentially exhausting

for both sexes, more time spent mating means less

time for other important activities, such as feeding.

According to other research, harassed females also

produce smaller, less attractive offspring. This could

mean that mosquitosh near the sewage treatment

plant have less successful offspring, as well as lower

chances of survival.

In another study, Dr Saaristo and her colleagues

exposed mosquitosh to trenbolone in aquariums.

Interestingly, the mating behaviour of males exposed

to trenbolone was no different to males that were

not exposed. On the other hand, exposed females

approached males less and spent more time

swimming away from them. This could mean that

increased trenbolone also results in fewer offspring

for these mosquitosh. Based on these ndings, it

seems that the effects of EDCs can vary and may

affect males and females differently.

Other research has found a variety of physiological

effects of EDCs, some more dramatic than those

observed here. This emphasises that the effects of

human activities on wildlife populations may not

always be obvious at a glance. So, while ‘water

pollution’ might make us think of oating dead sh,

it is worth remembering that there can be much more

happening beneath the surface.

Gambusia holbrooki female and male

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A HORROR MOVIE OR THE

BEAUTY OF NATURE?

BY BETHANY METE

Imagine someone left a baby at your doorstep and suddenly you have all the responsibilities of looking

after a new child. Then, as the baby grows, it murders your own children, making sure he/she is your only

priority. Sounds a bit like a horror movie, right? Well, in the animal world, this is just nature; a strategy

known as ‘brood parasitism’.

This rather devious technique of survival is seen in many species of insects and birds, and has been

intensely investigated in the cuckoo bird by Australian National University’s Naomi Langmore and her

colleagues. The team have not only learnt more about the tactful ways that this furtive bird tricks another

into providing for and raising their young, but have also discovered many ways in which this behaviour is

driving the evolution of the cuckoo bird and it’s hosts.

“For every host defence the cuckoo evolves ever better trickery, and this gives rise to a co-evolutionary

arms race,” Langmore explained. In other words, as a host evolves ways to defend itself, such as through

rejecting the brood parasite’s eggs, this drives the evolution of more effective behavioural techniques of the

brood parasite. Pretty cool, huh?

QUT Science and Engineering Faculty Spaces

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There are in fact ve types of co-evolutionary

arms race between the cuckoo and its hosts, which

Langmore and her colleagues have discovered:

1) Weaponry in the parasite vs. armoury in the

host; for example, as the parasite increases in body

size, so does the host

2) Furtiveness of parasite vs. strategies of host to

expose the parasite; for example, parasites may only

come to lay their egg when the host is absent from

the nest, and hosts may counter-select this through

loud alarm calls that trigger a mobbing attack on the

parasite

3) Specialist parasites mimicking hosts vs. hosts

diversifying signatures ; for example, a parasite may

produce young the same colour as the host’s young

so that the host will accept the parasitic young as its

own, but the host may then start producing multi-

coloured young to make this difcult for the parasite

to mimic

4) Generalist parasites mimicking hosts vs. host

favours signatures that force specialization in the

host; for example, a parasite that invades many host

species may produce an egg that is a medium colour

between all host egg colours, and the host may make

their egg colours more specic (e.g. with spots or

multi-coloured) in order to force the host to produce

a more specic egg colouration

5) Parasites using crypsis vs. hosts simplifying

signatures to make the parasite more detectable; for

example, parasites may produce dark eggs that are

unrecognisable at the bottom of a dark nest, and

hosts may counter-select this by producing nests that

allow more lighting to enter in order to detect the

parasitic eggs

Black eared Cuckoo(Chrysococcyx osculans)

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2011 emale Speckled Warbler (Chthonicola

sagittata) has her work cut out for her in keeping

this monstrous juvenile Black-eared Cuckoo

(Chrysococcyx osculans) fed

One of Langmore and her colleagues’ recent

studies investigated the third and fourth types of co-

evolution in particular, in which it examined how

the mimicry of egg colour inuences the likelihood

of the host rejecting the egg. In a cleverly designed

experiment, the rejection of parasitic eggs was

investigated in three of the cuckoo’s host species: the

white-plumed honeyeater, which is a species found

to be quite a common host among cuckoos within

south-eastern Australia; and the dusky woodswallow

and willie wagtail, which are considered to be less

frequently parasitised by the cuckoo. The method

involved transferring eggs between the host’s nests,

and testing the likelihood of rejection. The eggs may

either be from the same species, thereby simulating

eggs from cuckoos which are highly-mimetic; or from

a different species, simulating eggs from cuckoos

with poor mimicry. The foreign eggs were left in the

host’s nests for ve days.

The results indicated that all three host species

rejected the eggs that came from a different species,

and thereby poorly resemble their own. However, the

white-plumed honeyeater (the species most commonly

parasitised by cuckoos) also rejected foreign eggs

from its own species. That is a pretty good eye, if you

ask me! This means that eggs from this species must

show enough between-clutch variation that allows

parent white-plume honeyeaters to distinguish

its own eggs from that of another white-plumed

honeyeater. Langmore and her colleagues tested

this hypothesis using reectance spectrophotometry,

which supported that white-plumed honeyeaters had

a higher between-clutch variation than the other two

less frequently parasitised host species.

Female Speckled Warbler (Chthonicola sagittata) has her work cut out for her in keeping this monstrous

juvenile Black-eared Cuckoo (Chrysococcyx osculans) fed

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The fact that the most commonly parasitised species is the one with the highest degree of between-clutch

variation suggests that it is brood parasitism that is driving the evolution of this very characteristic. Evolution

may be a contentious topic of discussion among the public, however, among the scientic world, with

neat little studies like this one we can see examples of evolution occurring right in front of our very eyes.

There have been other beautifully designed studies that have shown that the parasite counter-selects the

host’s ability to recognise their eggs by enhancing their mimicry. Moreover, the co-evolutionary arms race

continues! As it turns out, this is not a horror movie at all, but simply the beauty of nature running its course

in one of the most fascinating races the world has seen.

The white-plumed honeyeater is among the cuckoo favourite hosts

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SPECIES FACT FILE:

Platypus

BY JESSICA CRISP

With webbed feet, rubbery bill and venomous sting, the platypus is one of Australia’s most iconic and

curious creatures. But little is known about this elusive, egg-laying mammal.

As with many Australian species, the platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) is endemic to Australia and,

along with echidnas it is the only mammal to lay eggs, otherwise known as a monotreme. When rst

discovered, European naturalists thought it impossible that an animal could have the bill of a duck, tail of

a beaver and webbed feet; it was believed to have been a hoax. It may be unusual but the platypus is just

another of Australia’s great natural surprises.

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The platypus lives in freshwater systems from

the high altitudes of Tasmania all the way through

Victoria and New South Wales, to the tropical

rainforests of far northern Queensland. Once found

in the Adelaide Hills, it is now extinct from South

Australia aside from the population introduced

to Kangaroo Island. There is no evidence the

platypus has ever occurred naturally in Western

Australia; and attempts to introduce it there have

been unsuccessful. The success of an introduction is

dependent on rivers, streams and creeks with native

vegetation for shading and cover, and earth banks

in which they create burrows for shelter, protection

and nesting.

With an average length of 50cm, the platypus

is a lot smaller than most imagine. Males tend to

range from 40cm to 63cm and can weigh up to

three kilograms, while females are slightly smaller.

Despite its unusual appearance, the platypus is

perfectly adapted to life in the water. Its brown fur

is thicker than that of a polar bear; the two layers

trap air and as many as 900 hundred hairs can be

found in just one square millimetre of fur. This keeps

them warm and waterproofed while they spend up

to 12 hours a day in the water searching for food.

Platypus Distribution Licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

via Wikimedia Commons

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Their front webbed feet are used to propel them through the water, while the back feet act as rudders.

They can remain submerged for up to two minutes while they search for food with their sharp claws, which

are also ideal for burrowing. However, these shout limbs are not so well adapted for movement on land, as

such they can appear a lot less graceful out of the water. And that beaver like tail? It stores fat reserves, much

like a camel’s hump, and is a good indication of the health of the mammal. Whilst platypus vocalisations

have not been recorded in the wild, those in captivity have been known to produce a low-pitched growling

when disturbed.

When diving for food, a platypus will close its eyes, ears and nostrils leaving the creature reliant on its

soft, leathery bill. It is equipped with a sixth sense called ‘electroreception’, which helps it detect hidden

prey. It is a feature unique to the platypus and some sh. Feasting on insect larvae, shrimps, water bugs and

tadpoles, the platypus will store its catch in cheek pouches until it reaches the surface where it grinds its meal

between horny plates at the back of the bill.

Platypus Den

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After mating, a female will typically lay two eggs,

which she will incubate for roughly 10 days. As a

mammal, a young platypus will suckle, but not from

a teat. The mother secretes milk from large mammary

glands under the skin; the young platypus then

feeds from this milk, which ends up on the mother’s

fur. There is no ofcial name for a baby platypus,

but a common suggested name is “platypup”. The

estimated life expectancy of a platypus varies, with

some sources suggesting 4-8 years and others

claiming they can live for up to 20 years. This is

just another example of how little we really do know

about these secretive creatures.

Male platypuses have a hollow spur about 15

millimetres in length on the inside of both hind legs,

which is connected to a venom gland. Since only

the male platypus has this venomous spur, and the

gland peaks during mating season, many suggest it

is normally used in aggressive encounters between

other male platypuses. Research on platypus venom

is difcult to conduct as the animals have been found

not to produce venom in captivity, suggesting that

the venom may also be used to defend against

predators. This venom is known to cause severe

pain in humans; therefore if a platypus needs to be

handled (if it is injured, for example), it should be

picked up by the tail.

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Despite its elusive nature, the platypus is

relatively common and under International Union

for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and has been

listed as Least Concern species. However, this does

not mean this creature is free of challenges. While

invasive species such as the European carp compete

with the platypus for food, degradation of habitat is

the biggest concern for this animal.

Dr Ross Thompson, an ecologist at Monash

University, said to Australian Geographic: “From

about the mid-1960s, there’s been quite a profound

warming and drying trend in Australia and

associated with that trend has been a decline in the

platypus’s range.” As a carnivore, the platypus keeps

populations of other species lower in the food chain

in check. Dr Thompson believes that if the species

is driven from its current range, whole freshwater

ecosystems could be affected.

Furthermore, rising temperatures may drive the

platypus from 30 per cent of its current habitat. The

thick fur coat of the platypus makes it particularly

vulnerable to rising temperatures. “They evolved in

a very cool time in Australia’s history and so they

needed to stay warm in cold water. Unfortunately

they have a real issue with getting rid of heat,” says

Dr Thompson said. His team predicts that rising

temperatures across southeast Australia will radically

reduce the area of viable habitat for the platypus.

Yabbiey traps are also posing a big threat to

platypus, which accounts for around half of all

deaths caused by human activity. Many of these

“opera house” style nets are illegal and can trap and

drown several platypuses at a time.

Even though we have been aware of the platypus’

existence since the 1800s, there is still a lack of

knowledge about the shy and secretive species.

This makes it hard to estimate populations and how

signicantly it is being affected by the above threats.

Even though the platypus is protected by legislation

in all states that forbids them being captured or

killed, except for scientic research, this may not be

enough for its long-term survival.

As a result, the Australian Platypus Conservancy

has been working towards gathering the data

needed to ll in the many gaps. It currently has

a large number of projects and studies running

which focus on recording sightings of the animal

and monitoring its population and distribution in

a variety of locations. It has also launched trials of

alternatively designed yabby traps that are of less

risk to other species.

Male Platypus Spur

Platypus by Lewin by John Lewin - From a collection at State Library of NSW’s Pictures and Manuscripts Licensed under Public domain

via Wikimedia Commons

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Other projects include reintroducing platypus to areas where it has gone locally extinct,

studies regarding various aspects of its behaviour, education programmes about conservation

issues and community action programmes. They also offer advice on how the public can help

the conservation effort; actions as simple as disposing of litter properly, keeping pets away

from important habitats, conserving water and supporting efforts to improve the environmental

quality of fresh waterways.

If you want to get involved, you can report platypus sightings to the Conservancy yourself or

even organise group watches. All the information on how you can contribute and tips on how

to spot this special animal is on their website: www.platypus.asn.au

The platypus may be common, but this does not mean we can be complacent. By making

an effort to learn more about this unique species, we can manage the recognised threats and

ensure they do not get out of control.

Whilst the platypus may remain one of Australia’s most beautiful mysteries, they are a mystery

worth protecting.

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Germplasm Banks:

An evolving method for protecting biodiversity

BY MYRIAM AMIET-KNOTTENBELT

forEst CorNEr

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Germplasm Banks:

An evolving method for protecting biodiversity

BY MYRIAM AMIET-KNOTTENBELT

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Planet Earth and all of its biomes are currently

facing a biodiversity crisis owing to human activities.

There is a global effort underway to conserve and

protect plant species against the threat of extinction.

It is estimated that between 60,000 to 100,000

terrestrial plant species alone are threatened with

extinction this century, almost one quarter of the

world’s known living terrestrial plants. This article

investigates one method that is being used to conserve

plant species and genetic diversity, the storage of

plant genetic material in germplasm banks.

WHAT IS A GERMPLASM BANK?

A germplasm bank is a facility that stores genetic

material. Plant germplasm banks include material

such as seeds, rhizomes (roots) and seedlings. In

addition, they can contain live cultures of fungi which

have symbiotic relationships with plants, and which

plants rely on for germination.

Generally, germplasm banks for plants may be

organised into two categories; collections containing

wild plant varieties and plants with agricultural

value. Within these two categories, a wide range of

storage techniques can be used, depending on the

kind of genetic material being held. This can include

basic fridges, where seeds are cooled to around

-20˚C, to cryopreservation where small plants are

stored in liquid nitrogen at -196˚C.

COLLECTION OF WILD PLANT SPECIES

The rst step in the conservation of plant species in

germplasm banks is collecting the plants themselves.

This usually involves collection of seeds as well as

plant material for identication purposes. A large

amount of knowledge and preparation is required

before going into the eld. Ideally, each collecting

process will be specic for a plant species. This is

because each plant species has different phonological

characteristics; owering time, time when seeds

become mature and dispersal mechanisms.

In addition, tailoring a eld trip to collect

one species is not always economically viable.

Nursery for endangered and rare alpine species

Photo credit: Myriam Amiet-Knottenbelt

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Conservation projects always have funding limits, and as such the conservation biologist must

maximise the benets that they can gain from going into the eld. Therefore, it is usually best to

go and collect several species at one point in time in one location. This is particularly important

when collecting in remote regions such as alpine habitats.

Once in the eld, other considerations come into play. When collecting plant material for

conservation, a biologist aims to capture the maximum range of genetic diversity possible.

This means you must be careful to take seeds from many different plants, often in different

locations. In addition, plant species may reproduce using rhizomes, which are roots that can

extend metres through the soil. This means that what may appear to be 50 plants could in fact

be one organism. An example of this is bracken (Pteridium genus).

Once seeds are collected they need to be moved to a storage facility very quickly. Otherwise,

they could completely dry out or start to germinate. Either of these can result in reduced seed

quality, thus, the amount of time taken for a seed to reach a storage facility can make the

difference between a healthy and unhealthy seed.

Fritellaria sp. bulbs growing in agar tubes in a fridge, after being germinated several months ago.

Photo credit: Myriam Amiet-Knottenbelt

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CONSIDERATIONS FOR COLLECTION AND

MAINTENANCE OF AGRICULTURAL SPECIES

The collection of seeds for agriculture is a very different process to the collection of wild

species. This is because collection of species closely related to current agricultural varieties,

which are called the primary and secondary genetic pools, are prioritised in collection and

regeneration. In addition, when regenerated wild crop relatives may be regenerated more often

if they have traits that are useful to farmers and other food producers. These include drought

resistance, pest resistance and plant specimens with physically desirable characteristics for

consumption e.g. taste, smell. The uniformity of agricultural crops should be evident on a trip

to your local supermarket.

Owing to the human interest in our own food supply, there is a large amount of money

devoted to research of agricultural plants storage and genetics. This often allows for a

more sophisticated analysis of current collections of agricultural plants, and how these can

be expanded. For example, large databases of genetic information allowed researchers to

conduct a global analysis of three collections of cucumber species in genebanks around the

world. This analysis revealed that there were three separate genetic populations in cucumber

collections from the USA, the Netherlands and China. Information such as this then allows

for the targeting of specic genetic populations, which allows for maximum representation of

a species genetic diversity in a collection. These resources are simply not available for many

botanists that work with non-agricultural plants. Such databases and research also allow for

the deletion of redundant or replicated genetic material.

An example of a remote collecting region in Parco del Margaureis, the Italian Alps

Photo credit: Myriam Amiet-Knottenbelt

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STORAGE OF THE SEEDS

Once seeds have been collected there are a variety

of methods by which they can be stored. The optimal

storage conditions for seeds depend on their own

seed biology, as well as the environmental triggers

that the plants respond to e.g. shifts in temperature.

However, there are similarities across certain groups

of plant species. For example, for many agricultural

varieties it is known that reducing their moisture

levels to 3-7% and storing them at a temperature of

-20˚C can allow for stable viability of the seeds for

over 25 years.

Storage of wild plant species is often far more

complex and far less researched. This may be

largely owing to the huge diversity of wild plant

species from many different families and genus’ that

can be collected, as opposed to the focus on two or

three genus’ in many agricultural seed banks. Well-

funded facilities can afford to have many different

fridges with different storage temperatures that cater

to different plant species. However, the reality is that

many smaller facilities may a few freezers set at

general temperatures, in which the seeds are placed

in the hope of them surviving long term.

Some Genus’ of plants do not have seeds and so

they must be cryopreserved for long term storage.

This is the case for the Musa genus, or bananas.

To increase their commercial attractiveness many

banana species have had seeds bred out of the fruit.

As a consequence, commercial Bananas are grown

from rhizomes (roots), and not seeds. To store this

genetic material small plantlets must be placed in

freezers or cryopreserved. This is still developing

technology, and currently 1,400 edible and non-

edible varieties of Musa sp. are being successfully

stored at the International Transit Centre at the

Katholieke Universiteit of Leuven in Belgium.

An endangered alpine fern growing under ultraviolet lights. These are ready to be taken into the ﬁeld.

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WHY PRESERVE PLANT GENETIC DIVERSITY?

Why should we care about the rapid decline of plant diversity globally? There are several compelling

reasons. The reality is that we depend on plants to live, regardless of how removed we may seem from them.

Rubber tree sap is used to make car tyres, plants compressed by millions of years power the computer you

are reading this article on, and plants have numerous applications in medicine. They form the basis of all

food chains and provide us with the air that we breathe. We cannot live without them. Another pertinent

reason is that extinction of a species is irreversible. Thus we are losing a wealth of knowledge that can help

us improve our own technology and that is valuable for its own sake.

Some examples of seed shapes kept for comparison with new material brought into the lab for identiﬁcation.

Photo credit: Myriam Amiet-Knottenbelt

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There are many global initiatives for plant

conservation, but perhaps the most important for

wild plant varieties is the Kew Millennium Seed

Bank Partnership. Begun in 2000, the hub of the

partnership is a nuclear bomb proof facility in

Wakehurst, United Kingdom which plans to contain

25% of the world’s seeds by 2020. They have

currently reached a target of 13% on the writing

of this article. Kew Gardens, in addition to its own

research facilities, has partnerships with and gives

funding to 80 countries around the world.

One of the largest global initiatives for the

protection of crop diversity is the Slavbard Global

Seed Vault. Located on an island in the Slavbard

Archipelago off the Norwegian Coast, this facility

is ambitiously proposing to act as a back up for

the world’s agricultural varieties of seed in a facility

used by all nations. The vault itself consists of three

storage chambers deep inside a mountain, which

provides natural cooling reducing the amount of

energy required to store the seeds contained within.

A large number of nations have currently contributed

to this project, including Australia. Seeds placed

inside the vault are only accessible by the country

that placed them there, which acts as an incentive

for all nations to donate their seed to the vault. The

project is managed by the Norwegian Government,

the Nordic Genetic Resources Centre and the C Crop

Diversity Trust.

GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR PLANT COLLECTION AND CONSERVATION

Hiking in Parco del Marguareis on the way to a refugio and botanical station.

Photo credit: Myriam Amiet-Knottenbelt

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AUSTRALIAN INITIATIVES FOR PLANT

COLLECTION AND CONSERVATION

Australia is also contributing to this global effort

of plant conservation. For the conservation of wild

species there is the Australian Seed Bank Partnership,

which is a collaborative network of Australia’s

Herbaria. They have several projects running at

the moment, including the target of reaching 1,000

species and restore plant diversity in the Australian

landscape. For conservation of agricultural plants

there are centres such as the Australian Grains

Genebank in Horsham, Victoria which is being built

to hold 180,000 seed samples and is run by the

Department of Environment and Primary Industry.

However, one major problem for Australia is

we have a small population on a large continent

that is described as mega diverse. This means that

in Australia there is an unusually high amount of

species that only live in one place, or are endemic.

This presents botanists with a challenge, as they

have few resources and people with which to collect

species over a vast area. This is in contrast to Europe,

which has a large number of countries in an area

the size of Australia, and many of them have more

seed banks and resources devoted to seed banking

than Australia does. For example, in the Piedemonte

region of Italy there are no less than 18 stations that

collect and store seeds, along with one major seed

bank.

LIMITATIONS TO SEED BANKING

The idea of building huge arks to contain all

plant diversity sounds like science ction and is

really exciting. However, there are also limitations

that come with seed banking. Currently, our

understanding of storage methods only allows us to

preserve specic kinds of seeds that contain small

amounts of water when mature. These are called

orthodox seeds. Other seeds that begin to develop

whilst still on the mother plant are called recalcitrant

seeds, and current storage techniques do not work

Another endangered species growing under UV lights.

Photo credit: Myriam Amiet-Knottenbelt

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well on these plants. In addition, whilst a seed is in

storage it accumulates constant damage even if being

kept at low temperatures. Thus seeds are constantly

becoming less likely to germinate the longer they are

stored.

An additional issue is that ex situ conservation

in seed banks needs to be used in conjunction with

other methods of plant conservation. The plants

grown by the seed bank will not be useful if their

pollinators such as bees, beetles, ants and butteries

are extinct. Similarly, if the symbiotic fungi that plants

use to take nutrients from the soil are not conserved

along with the plants, then the plants will also die or

have reduced capacity for growth. What is required

is preservation of whole ecosystems.

Furthermore, the current conservation efforts in

seed banks concentrate on terrestrial systems. This

means that the ocean’s plants, freshwater plants and

most of the planet’s fungi are not being considered.

This also illustrates the need for seed banks to work

alongside other methods of conservation.

SOME CONCLUSIONS

Plant genetic material storage is in many ways

still in its infancy and is an exciting area of scientic

research. It gives us hope for the future of biodiversity

on our planet and that we can take preventative

action to avoid huge extinctions in this century.

Perhaps, most of all, it gives hope that children in

100 or 1,000 years time will be able to run through

a meadow and wonder at the diversity of owers

and grasses, chase after butteries and know that

generations later their children may do the same.

Seeds in a petri dish.

Photo credit: Myriam Amiet-Knottenbelt

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thank you to staff at the Banco del Germplasma

in Piemonte, Italy who allowed me to take photos

at their facility and gave me access to important

literature.

QUICK LINKS

For a brief introduction to the Kew Millennium

Seed Bank, watch this TED Talk:

Drori, J (2006) Why we’re storing billions of

seeds, [Online], Available: http://www.ted.com/

talks/jonathan_drori_why_we_re_storing_billions_

of_seeds [13 Jul 2014]

For a brief introduction to the Slavbard Global

Seed Vault, watch this TED Talk:

Folwer, C. (2009) One seed at a time, protecting

the future of food, [Online], Available: http://www.

ted.com/talks/cary_fowler_one_seed_at_a_time_

protecting_the_future_of_food [13 Jul 2014]

REFERENCES

ESCONET (2009) ESCONET Seed Collecting

Manual for Wild Species.

Smith, RD., Dickie, JB., Linington, SH.,

Pritchard HW. and Probert, RJ. (eds.) (2003) Seed

Conservation: turning science into practice, London:

The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.

Paulsen, TR. et al. (2008) ‘Physical dormancy in

seeds: a game of hide and seek?’, New Phytologist,

vol. 198, pp.496-503.

Colliville et al. (2012) ‘Volatile ngerprints of seeds

of four species indicate the involvement of alcoholic

fermentation, Lipid deroxidation, and Maillard

reactions in seed deterioration during ageing and

desiccation stress’, Journal of Experimental Botany,

vol. 63, no. 18, pp. 6519-6530.

Lv. Y, (2012), ‘Genetic Diversity and Structure of

Cucumber Population (Cucumus Sativus L.)’, PLOS

One, vol. 7, no. 10, e.46919

Heslop-Harrison, JH, and Schwaracher, T. et al.

(2007) ‘Domestication, Genomics and the Future of

the Banana’, Annals of Botany, vol. 100, pp.1073-

84.

Anonymous. (2014), Biodiversity International,

Musa Germplasm Bank Collection, [Online],

Available: http://map.seedmap.org/solutions/

conservation/seed-banks/bioversity-international-

musa-germplasm-collection/ [5 Jul 2014].

Anonymous. (2014), International Musa

Germplasm Plant Centre, [Online], Available:

http://www.bioversityinternational.org/research-

portfolio/conservation-use-of-bananas-tree-crops/

international-musa-germplasm-transit-centre/ [4 Jul

2014]

Anonymous. (2014) About us, [Online],

Available: http://www.seedpartnership.org.au/

about/aboutus [4 Jul 2014]

Anonymous. (2014), 1000 Species, [Online],

Available: http://www.seedpartnership.org.au/

initiatives/1000species [4 Jul 2014]

Anonymous. (2014), About the Millennium Seed

Bank Partnership, [Online], Available: http://www.

kew.org/science-conservation/millennium-seed-

bank-partnership/about-millennium-seed-bank-

partnership [5 Jul 2014]

Anonymous. (2014), Svalbard Global Seed

Vault, [Online], Available: http://www.croptrust.

org/content/svalbard-global-seed-vault [5 Jul

2014]

Anonymous. (2014), DEPI Horsham, [Online],

Available: http://www.depi.vic.gov.au/agriculture-

and-food/innovation-and-research/research-

centres/dpi-horsham/ [5 Jul 2014]